Galloping Horses: Treadmills and Other ≥Theatre Appliances≤ in Hippodramas

By Kimberly Poppiti

Note: this is the full-length version of Dr. Poppitiπs research paper; an edited version of this piece was published in the fall 2005 issue of TD&T (Vol. 41 no. 4).

The ≥equine actor≤ has had a significant effect on theatrical scenic design and production practices in the United States from the nineteenth century to the present day.[1] Specifically, the inclusion of the horse in the theatre inspired theatrical stage machinery that was designed for (and most often used in) the production of equestrian or ≥hippo≤ dramas, a popular nineteenth century form of spectacular drama, which featured equine actors in leading roles and also ≥extra≤ or ≥supernumerary≤ equine characters enacted by live horses onstage. Although horses had made occasional appearances on the theatrical stage prior to 1800, it was not until the mid-nineteenth century that they became regular (and extremely popular) performers in theatrical plays, particularly the variety of spectacularly realistic plays that were popular during the latter half of the 19^th century.

The presence of the equine actor influenced the development of scenic design and stage machinery by providing the opportunity for both great spectacle and also the lifelike presentation of numerous illusions onstage. The most significant of these illusions was that of forward motion over distance, which came to be effectively, realistically, and quite regularly presented on the theatrical stage. This was accomplished through the use of specially designed and patented machinery. Most of this machinery was of the ≥treadmill and panorama≤ type, which evolved significantly during the period. Another significant, though ultimately less popular, form of technology that was also used, was the rotating or revolving ≥disc≤ stage. Other innovative designs were patented and used to complete or enhance these and other horse-related onstage special effects; they included: specially designed and adapted chariots used in the depiction of races and related crashes; harnesses and platforms that worked in tandem to create the realistic appearance of circus-style equestrian acrobatics; and even a detailed costume design that enables a horse (and his rider) to appear transformed into a fantastic, two-headed, ≥push me, pull me≤ type of creature that adds little to stage machinery, but illustrates how central the inclusion of the equine actor was to some forms of spectacular theatre in the 19^th century.

The inclusion of the horse in the popular theatre of the day, along with the general love of spectacle brought by the (new) middle class audiences of the 19^th century, combined to result in the production of realistic and spectacular illusions designed by savvy theatre artists. Why the horse? Because, at the time, the horse was the paramount symbol of power known to society, as such, it was logical to incorporate horses into theatre to increase the power of spectacle. It was the pursuit of the illusion of the forward motion of the horse across distance on stage that largely inspired the development of this stage technology.

The horse is not the only reason stage machinery has advanced to its present state, but the contributions made by the equine actor and the plays that employed him are significant causal factor in its development in the 19^th century. The examination of some major horse-related innovations in scenic design, along with the specific patented designs that facilitated them, will provide powerful evidence in support of this.

The first known use of a moving panorama as part of the onstage scenery of an American theatrical production came in 1828, when Paris and London, or a trip to both cities opened at the Park Theatre in New York and utilized a primitive ≥moving≤ panoramic background to depict parts of the title journey.[2] This ≥moving panorama≤ seems to have been essentially a moving panel or series of panels that were painted with some background scene and that were either moved or unrolled from one reel onto another to illustrate the passing scenery in order to give the illusion of movement by the actor/s in front of it.

In 1831, a production of H.M. Milnerπs Mazeppa utilized a similar panorama when Mazeppa premiered at Astleyπs London Amphitheatre. In 1833 a production of Mazeppa debuted the same effect at the Bowery Theatre in New York.

The use of a moving panoramic background is significant here because it was the first time it was used behind an equine actor. Aside from the (then) unique combination of horse and panoramic background, there was no major innovation to distinguish the design. Historically, the panoramic background itself, while innovative, was also a relatively logical and simple creative leap not far removed from previous types of background scenery.

Scenic backgrounds evolved from a single, unchangeable permanent background (originating with the ≥skene≤ used during the golden age of Greece) which then evolved into something that could be changed through the addition of painted panels called ≥pinakes≤ which were placed in front of the skene. Later, even greater diversity became possible through the introduction of the three-sided scenic devices called ≥periaktois≤ that the Greeks developed so that three different scenic backgrounds could be shown with a single periaktoi device. This design technology was further developed during the Renaissance, most significantly by Italian designers. The panoramic background developed from these earlier advances. It provides a background that appears to change to coincide with the moving stage action.

What was more fascinating (in both theory and practice) about these productions of Mazeppa, was the physical scene-design beyond the panorama. The set typically included a variety of levels and ≥runs≤ onstage. The title equine, the ≥Wild Horse of Tartary,≤ was trained to tear madly up and down these runs, with Mazeppa strapped naked to his back. Various accounts exist of the very real and palpable danger when the horse was sent out for this scene. For example, Clara Morris recounts the very real danger inherent in creating and presenting such a scene in her discussion of a horse named ≥Queen≤ aboard whom the American actor R. E. J. Miles played the title role in Mazeppa during the mid-nineteenth century:

When she came rearing, plunging, biting, snapping, whirling, and kicking her way on to the stage, the scarlet lining of her dilating nostrils and the foam flying from her mouth made our screams very natural ones, [ä] and really it was a thrilling scene when Mazeppa was stripped and bound, his head tail-ward, his feet mane-ward, to the back of that maddened beast. She seemed to bite and tear at him, and when set free she stood straight up for a dreadful moment, in which she really endangered his life, then, with a wild neigh, she tore up the ≥runs,≤ as if fiends pursued her, with the man stretched helplessly along her inky back. The curtain used to go up again and again ≠ it was so very effective.[3]

Despite this exciting effect, the primary contribution of Mazeppa to the field of stage spectacle remains the combination of the horse and the moving panoramic background. Judging from the more spectacular elements of production (the multi-level ≥runs≤ included in the mounted scene, the climactic cavalry battle scene that featured numerous horses in action, and finally the practice of using scantily clad young women to portray Mazeppa himself), it seems probable that the effect of horse in front of the moving background was less than the highlight of the show; however, time has proven it to be the playπs most enduring contribution to theatrical design. And it is this early theatrical panorama that was vital to the evolution of the technology.

There are two basic types of theatrical panoramas: the endlessly repeating panorama and the progressive roller type panorama. The simpler of the two is the ≥endlessly repeating≤ panorama that runs continuously around two vertical rollers. Since it is seen repeatedly by the audience, and since its size is limited by the available room for it to run and also by the size of the rollers, suitability is limited. This type of panorama simply shows a ≥moving≤ background and can effectively depict movement through (relatively) monotonous terrains such as (for example) desert or ocean backgrounds, which do not suffer when presented without any necessarily recognizably unique elements or landmarks that would be recognized each time around, thereby destroying any sort of realistic effect. Such a panorama provides a novel and somewhat realistic effect especially when compared to a static background. An ≥endless≤ panorama can also be quite useful and realistic if it is being used to depict movement around a set path such as, for example, a racetrack. The second type of panorama is a progressive ≥roller-type≤ panorama that scrolls, not repetitiously around two rollers, but from one roller to the other. This type of panorama can depict virtually any degree of detail as no part of it will ever repeat and be re-seen by the audience.

Figure 1: The endlessly repeating and progressive roller type panoramas

When the panoramic background was used in productions of Mazeppa during the 1830s, it was a simplistic one, probably of neither of these common types, but instead a predecessor that utilized individual moving background panels; and there is no evidence that a treadmill was incorporated. Instead the equine actor was apparently trained to march in place in front of the panorama. Although the plot of Mazeppa calls for the ≥Wild Horse of Tartary≤ to tear madly around the stage, and a treadmill placed in front of the changing background clearly would have enhanced the verisimilitude of such an effect, none was in use; instead, the horse marched in place and the set was designed to also incorporate a variety of levels, so that the horse could run up, around, and back down onstage-ramps to simulate his progress around the mountainous landscape.

It is interesting to consider why the combination of equine actor and moving panorama should have been combined for the first known time in history with the production of Mazeppa in the 1830s. It is especially puzzling when we take into consideration that the technology required to produce the effect (and even to build and operate the moving panorama) was relatively simple. Why wasnπt it employed earlier? The explanation lies partially in the appearance of the relatively new theatrical genre, hippodrama, in which equine actors (horses) perform characters onstage. The emergence of this form as a popular attraction can be attributed to a number of factors, most significant of which were the emergence of a new middle class and the significant role of the horse in the development of human civilization and American culture. In 19^th century American society, with theatre audiences that now included growing numbers of middle class, hard working Americans, visually spectacular plays became the most popular type of dramatic entertainments. Since the audiences craved spectacle, visual elements of production became increasingly spectacular and realistic. When we consider that civilization was simultaneously experiencing a rise in mechanization, it is not surprising that the desire for spectacle combined with these technological advances and resulted in a unique form of entertainment. And since, at the time, there was no more familiar or important form or symbol of power than the horse, he became a vehicle through which and around which spectacular realism exploded on the stage.

Once the moving background and the horse combined, the next major innovation in spectacular realism for hippodrama was the combination of the treadmill and panorama. This innovative machinery developed gradually during the remaining years of the 19^th century, with a few designs being patented in the early years of the 20^th century. An examination of relevant patented machinery designed for specific plays illustrates how the development of treadmill and panorama stage machinery (and some related designs) facilitated the realistic illusion of forward motion (sometimes at great speeds) on the American theatrical stage.

The first significant designer of this type of stage machinery was J.W. Knell, better known as Neil Burgess, but also occasionally known as Neilson Burgess. Burgess, also an actor, female impersonator and playwright, tended to write plays (and often to rewrite plays) primarily to showcase each of his patented advances in treadmill and panorama stage machinery. The first of his significant plays was Josiah Allenπs Wife. Originally credited to Olivia Lovell in 1882, the play came to be known as Vim and also as A Visit to Puffy Farm in 1883, and its authorship was then credited to Neil Burgess.[4] It played mainly as Vim from February 1883 through August 1888 with overall success. In 1892 it was revived under the new title, Neil Burgessπ Circus.[5] The play, under various titles and in various stages of development, tells the story of a country picnic, and concludes with an exciting and visually spectacular buggy-ride home. This latter is essential to the significance of the play and of Burgess himself. It contributed significantly to the evolution of nineteenth century American stage machinery that was used in, and essential to, the development of hippodrama by its combined use of the equine actor with the onstage treadmill and moving background panorama that is utilized in its ≥buggy ride≤ scene. Josiah Allenπs Wife was repeatedly rewritten and adapted as new advances in stage machinery were achieved. Later, rewritten versions of the play seem to have improved it overall, increasing its popularity and critical success, which in turn has increased the amount of information available about the play in production.

First produced in 1882, Josiah Allenπs Wife, originally utilized a ≥Buggy ride device≤ to give the realistic illusion of the forward movement of an onstage horse-drawn buggy. A patent, U.S. Patent 256,007, was granted to J. W. Knell (later and better known by his stage name ≥Neil Burgess≤) on 4 April 1882 for the buggy ride device that was officially termed an ≥apparatus for producing illusionary dramatic effects.≤[6] It is the first of many significant patents Burgess received for such designs. The illustration from this patent is found in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Diagram from U.S. Patent No. 256,007

Burgess had filed his application for this patent two years earlier, on 22 March 1880, but the patent granting process is often slow. The patent provides detailed information on the buggy ride device, its makeup, and the details of its use and is divided (as are all U.S. patents) into two main parts: detailed diagrammatic illustrations of the design and a detailed written description of the same. This is the first of Burgessπ many significant U.S. patents, and it is from this earliest patented device that all later treadmill and panorama stage machinery stems. In the patent, Burgess clearly states the purpose of his device: ≥The object of the invention is the production on the theatrical stage of the appearance of a person, animal, or vehicle, any or all of these, traveling along a road, course, or path of considerable length.≤[7] Later designs, by Burgess and others, which were patented over approximately the next thirty years, merely built upon this original idea.

The patent detail includes ≥a panoramic scene≤ that moved ≥lengthwise≤ behind the action of the actors. This is represented at ≥a≤ in the illustration. Burgess suggests that it be painted on canvas and scrolled between two vertical rollers, depicted in the patentπs illustration as ≥b≤ and ≥c.≤ An ≥endless belt or path≤ is also described and marked ≥d≤ in the illustration. The belt hangs in ≥a suitable frame, e, which rests upon the stage floor.≤[8] This is what I refer to as the treadmill, and it must be strong enough to support the horse, vehicle, occupants and other contents, and Burgess says so in the patent specifications. A hidden restraining device, ≥i,≤ runs ≥from the vehicle to the stage [ä] to prevent the vehicle from moving forward when the horse walks.≤ [9]

Burgess summarizes the overall effect desired from this device:

When the horse is started up he will continue to walk, and the wheels of the device will continue to revolve, but neither will move forward; both will remain stationary. At the same time, the panoramic scene is moved along in the direction opposite to that in which the horse is faced, and the whole will produce a very good appearance of horse, vehicle, and occupant traveling along past the objects depicted in the canvas.[10]

Burgess improved on his original design and a new apparatus was patented by him, again under the name J. W. Knell, on 8 May 1883.[11] The illustration from this patent is included as Figure 3. In it Burgess includes 3 separate ≥figures≤, the first one is quite similar to the lone illustration used in his prior patent and 2 other detailed views of specific elements of the complete design as depicted in the first.

Figure 3: Diagram from U.S. Patent No. 277,137

The new design featured three significant additions to enhance the illusion of forward motion facilitated by and described in Burgessπ original patent, no. 256,007. The updated design, U.S. patent 277,137, added ≥suitable natural objects≤ to ≥guard or screen the ends≤ of the endless belt/path which could be arranged either ≥singly, as at c, or upon an endless chain or belt, as at d, as indicated in Fig. 2 of the drawings.≤[12] Either way, the ≥objects≤ serve to conceal the place where moving and stationary elements meet and this improves the overall appearance of reality. The effect of motion was further enhanced by ≥one or more pipes from a blower are led to suitable concealed positions back of screen b, and currents of air from the open ends turned upon the figure or person supposed to be progressing across the stage, and the hair or parts of the dress, as ribbons, are caused to flutter and flap.≤[13] These are concealed by other elements. Finally, at ≥e,≤ a large, scrolling ≥grass mat≤ was added to cover the otherwise stationary stage floor in front of the treadmill and thus complete the illusion of motion. The addition of ≥suitable natural objects≤ not only concealed the workings of the treadmill, but also added to the overall realistic effect of the setting. The blowers enhanced the illusion of movement and added an element of speed to the effect. The grass mat itself both added to the realism and enhanced the illusion of motion. Succinctly, the design provided for, ≥the combination of a back piece, an endless path, moving screen, moving wing pieces, and moving-stage floor covering, whereby the effect of progressive motion of the main background scene and the actors on the endless path is produced [...]≤[14]

Early reactions to Josiah Allenπs Wife as a theatrical entertainment were negative overall, although the buggy ride device typically generated greater appreciation than other various elements of early productions and the play enjoyed popular success in spite of negative critical reviews. In 1883, Odell noted, ≥Neil Burgess resumed his highly successful performances in Vim, and reached the two hundredth performance of the play on 11 October, the engagement ending on 13 October. A ågreat circus sceneπ and åa drive home on the patent revolving stageπ were wonders of the show.≤[15] The Chicago Tribune reported in January of 1883:

The best feature on the performance, and the only one possessing the merit of originality and freshness, is the ≥Burgess revolving-stage horse-racing invention,≤ by which [ä] the appearance of rapid movement is given to a live horse which seems to trot at good speed upon a revolving stage that leaves it stationary. The animal is a remarkably fine one, and performs with an intelligence and spirit which the more intellectual portion of the company might do worse than emulate.[16]

The glowing description of the horse was a common element in the reviews of hippodrama, as was the implication that the horse or horses were more intelligent and/or entertaining than the human performers. Burgessπ novel stage machinery was usually positively reviewed, unlike his plays. There were times, however, when even this buggy ride failed to delight. This was usually due to a malfunction with the treadmill and panorama apparatus as happened during the playsπ run in Detroit, the opening of which was delayed by problems with the buggy ride scene. Simply, it seemed the horse would not or could not move forward.[17]

The following year, the play was rewritten to include a circus scene, which (in typical Burgess fashion) was ripe with potential spectacle (albeit of a slightly different type). The main attraction of this new circus scene was an equestrian bareback act. Like the buggy ride scene before it, this equine action was enacted upon an onstage treadmill. The treadmill once again facilitated the illusion of forward motion and specifically allowed for the realistic presentation of a bareback circus riding act by allowing the horse to move (in place) on the onstage treadmill, instead of around an actual circus ring. This was apparently accomplished in much the same way as the buggy ride had been, and no new patent from this time period exists; however, later Burgess designs do specifically address the presentation of such theatrical circus-riding scenes, and elements of these may have been in use here. The use of the treadmill on stage allowed for significant developments in the display of staged realism within the circus subgenre of hippodrama. This is primarily because most theatrical stages are too small to fit a circus ring. Theatrical producers still sought to include the form because it was spectacular and also because, as a direct and popular precursor to hippodrama, this equestrian form still had many fans.

As Josiah Allenπs Wife developed into the version more commonly known as Vim or A Visit to Puffy Farm, it continued to conclude with the circus scene and buggy ride home. The New York Times described this dream sequence as being ≥of a very slender texture,≤ but found that ≥the device by which a live horse is made to go through the motions of running without changing his position has at least the merit of originality.≤[18]

It was the simple combination of the primary elements of the treadmill and panorama by Burgess that enabled the illusion of movement and it allowed a variety of equine actions heretofore impossible on the theatrical stage to be accomplished with relative ease. Using treadmills, horses could move onstage, directly before the audience, with no other special effects needed. Combining this with the panorama and other related elements made the movement look like realistic forward progression. It was the treadmill and panorama combination that facilitated the next major innovation in theatrical spectacle involving realistic stage movement, the onstage horserace.

The Country Fair was written by Charles Barnard for (and with influence from) Burgess. It included a staged horserace scene that was accomplished by the combined use of treadmills and panoramas on stage. In the fall of 1888 The Country Fair opened, most probably premiering in Philadelphia.[19] In March 1889 it began a long run in New York City as the first production at F.F. Proctorπs new Twenty-third Street Theatre.[20] The New York Times reviewed the play twice during its opening week. Both reviews commented positively on the horse, but neither recommended the play.

The Country Fair is not so diverting a piece as Vim which it closely resembles [ä]

The husking bee, the live and happy baby, and the intelligent horse, Cold Molasses, who won $3000 in a race and devoured a marriage license, caused much merriment.[21]

The attempts at pathos in A Country Fair are futile and wearisome. The spectacle of an uncouth man in womanπs clothing kissing the nose of an intelligent circus horse can scarcely be expected to move an assemblage of intelligent men and women to tears. Yet this is the culminating touch of supposed pathos in A Country Fair.[22]

It is worth noting again here that the equine performers in Burgessπ plays (and others like them) were much beloved by audiences, and this certainly contributed to the speedy development of the stage machinery that was utilized in so many hippodramas.

The Country Fair moved to the nearby (and more prestigious) Union Square Theatre on 11 November 1889 where it played for the remainder of that season and continued into the next.[23] The play proved extraordinarily popular, playing on a regular basis at various theatres in the United States until 1895.[24] Surely the novelty of the effects facilitated by its stage machinery, to be precise the onstage horse race, contributed to its popular success.

The preceding innovations in stage design showcased and necessitated by early plays starting with A Trip to Paris and New York and including Vim, in its various forms, facilitated the development (both technical and creative) of the on-stage horserace. Like Vim, The Country Fair featured Burgess playing a female character in a play with an unremarkable melodramatic plot. As the coup de spectacular of Vim had been the buggy and then circus rides, the most significant feature of The Country Fair was its staged horserace, incorporated into which were (of course) horses and also several related and noteworthy advances in stage effects and machinery. Although the machinery itself was the most important element in creating the illusion (and thus in the overall success of the play) the staging and presentation of the horserace also contributed to its powerful effect, and should be clarified.

The race utilized either a blackout or, in some cases, a curtain, to allow the audienceπs view of the race to begin and end ≥in progress.≤ This technique of presenting only a fraction of the race ≥onstage≤ was central to its success and became standard practice for racing plays; it worked because it allowed the stage machinery, as well as the equine actors, to get up and running for the audienceπs view. For the audience to see the extensive set up of equipment, and the careful positioning and tethering of horses required for the race to take place would certainly have detracted from its illusion of reality. Therefore the race both began and ended in progress by utilizing either a blackout or a curtain to conceal both the beginning and end of the race. In this way, the audience saw only horses in motion, running toward the (out of sight) finish line. This contributed significantly to the audienceπs suspension of disbelief as they did not see the horses walked in, tethered, and brought up to running speed on the treadmills, nor did they see them slowed to a stop, un-harnessed, and un-tethered as they were walked off their treadmills at the raceπs end. They were also spared the sight of a crew of workmen who set up or uncovered the treadmills prior to the race and then either removed them from the stage or covered them at its end. All that the audience saw was the spectacular effect of horses galloping onstage.

Burgess patented three new designs for theatrical racing machinery around the time that The Country Fair was produced. Although he was granted these patents after the playπs opening, he had applied for both before then and obviously perfected the designs even before that. Therefore it can be reasonably inferred that the designs were incorporated into productions of the play.

The earliest of these three patents is U.S. Patent No. 286,709. The illustration from the patent is shown below in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Diagram from U.S. Patent No.286,709

The detailed illustration Burgess included in the patent provides 3 distinct figures, depicting both overview (Burgessπ Figure 1 and 3 in the illustration) and side (Burgessπ Figure 2) perspectives on this device. The patent illustration leaves no doubt that the design is intended to facilitate the theatrical ≥racing≤ of multiple horses onstage. This intention is further clarified by Burgessπ description of the operation of this device:

The horse, attached to the windlass by means of the wire, is placed upon the endless path, as shown in Fig. 1, and started up. If the windlass is clamped, the horse will remain fixed in reference to objects upon the stage, and the endless path will travel beneath him; but if the windlass be allowed to turn, the horse will make some advance upon the endless path, and in time reach the farther extremity of it, as shown by dotted lines in Figs. 1 and 2.[25]

Burgess also explained:

If desired, the progressive motion of the horse may be aided by increasing the friction upon the roll a by means of lever g. By means of these devices it will be seen that the horse may be made to take any desired position upon the endless path, and [ä] he may be pulled back bodily to any position ≠ as to the end of the path nearest the windlass after he has advanced to the opposite end.[26]

The primary innovation of both U.S. Patent No. 286,709 and The Country Fair was the use of multiple treadmills with assistance of the windlass and braking devices that facilitated the ≥racing≤ of the horses. This enabled the presentation of an effect in which a horse, in this play, the main equine character Cold Molasses, could be shown to pull ahead of the other running horses and ≥win≤ the race. While the effect of a battle for the lead could also have been achieved by moving only the treadmill on which Cold Molasses ran toward and/or away from the finish line while the other two horses and treadmills remained stationary; the effect would not have been nearly as realistic. Having the treadmills of multiple horses on moveable tracks, or having the horses controlled by restraining devices or carriages moved by winches, added both realism and drama to the effect of the scene as they appeared to ebb and flow in a desperate battle for the lead. To further the verisimilitude of this onstage horse race, a moving panorama could be incorporated as it had been in earlier productions and designs as a moving background to the horses. Burgess explained though that, with this new design, the effect of forward movement could be achieved ≥with or without the aid of the moving panoramic scene described in my previous patent.≤[27] Burgess considered this design to be, not only effective, but also diverse in its applications and explained that it could be used to present other effects in addition to the horse race, including, ≥circus performances aboard a single horse ≠ as bareback riding and the like ≠ or that races between animals other than horses may also be skillfully represented.≤[28]

In the second patent Burgess received for racing machinery used in The Country Fair, U.S. Patent No. 418, 372, the effect was again improved.

Figure 5: Diagram 1 from U.S. Patent No. 418,372

Figure 6: Diagram 2 from U.S. Patent No. 418,372

As the first illustration (Figure 5 above, including Burgessπ Figures 1 and 2) from the patent shows, Burgess not only included a panoramic background in this design, he also added a second moving background canvas behind the previously single panorama, (kπ and k). The ≥compound panoramic scenes of unequal heights and adapted to be moved at different rates of speed≤ were designed to enhance the illusion of movement and add reality to the motion of the horse on the treadmill.[29]

The movement of the horse and carriage were also adjusted in this design, (see Figure 6 above for Burgessπ Figures 3, 4, and 5) as Burgess explains:

In my within-described device and apparatus the position of the animal with relation to the carriage is substantially fixed, (within certain limits of movement, as described,) while the carriage and path are moved back and forth as a preferable means of changing the position of the animal with reference to the surrounding objects, or of two or more animals with reference to each other.[30]

This innovation of placing individual horses on their own treadmills and

individual treadmill carriages made it easier and less risky to produce the illusion of a race onstage. Previously, the horses had been on their own treadmills, but there were no carriages as in Patent No. 418,372. The key innovation lies in attaching the horses securely to these carriages; Burgess explains,

By means of this device, or equivalent means of attachment to the carriage the horse or other animal may be held in a fixed position so far as the carriage is concerned, while it is prevented from moving lengthwise off the carriage, although making violent movements, as in running, to produce the rapid motion of the endless path.[31]

Previously, the horse would have to progress or be restrained upon the ≥endless belt≤ or treadmill and could win or lose the race accordingly. With this new design, the individual carriages could simply be moved forward and/or back to make it look as if the race was being won or lost.

Finally, the third patent, U.S. Patent No. 423,171, granted on 11 March 1890, detailed a moving picket ≥fence≤ added in the foreground of the stage. Both the fence and the panorama/s would move in one direction, while the treadmills (and horses) ran in the other. The illustrations from this patent are shown in Figures 7 and 8 below.

Figure 7: Diagram 1 from U.S. Patent No. 423,171

Figure 8: Diagram 2 from U.S. Patent No. 423,171

As described in previous patents, it was herein made possible for the horses to run either on the treadmill or atop individual carriages which were mounted on the treadmills and were moved by means of the multiple winch arrangement (≥i≤ in the illustration for patent 418,372). The addition of the picket fence is the most obvious improvement to Burgessπ effect and is shown at ≥e≤ in Figure 7 above. Burgess also allowed in his description for the inclusion of one or more additional ≥objects≤ onstage moving at a desired rate of speed to complement the illusion of the horses passing by at great speed.[32]

In addition to the various ongoing advancing improvements in stage technology, another, non-mechanical advance in the stage realism of presenting these plays came by way of the addition of more horses to the race scenes. This was the case with The Country Fair as well as with later plays. The total number of racehorses involved in the race scene in this play began at three and grew to five (in 1891 in Boston), and then to seven and even nine in later years.[33]

It is interesting to note another type of racing machine that also developed in the last decade of the nineteenth century; this is the revolving stage (AKA turntable stage and revolving stage). A revolving stage design was patented by Burgess, but he was not the originator of this type of machinery. Burgessπ design was preceded by that of Frank M. Chapman, who was granted a U.S. Patent No. 423,372 for such a device on 11 March 1890.[34] The illustrations for this patent are below in Figures 9 and 10.

Figure 9: Diagram 1 from U.S. Patent No. 423,372

Figure 10: Diagram 2 from U.S. Patent No. 423,372

Chapmanπs design allows for a stage with a cut-away section to reveal the part of a rotating turntable on which a horse or horses either stand or move, their movement controlled by means of a breastplate-type restraining device which can be made slack to allow for forward movement or tightened to control the same (shown in Chapmanπs Figures 1 and 2 at a19 through a 23). The restraining device can be utilized to create the appearance of a ≥race.≤ The uncovered section of the turntable is advanced or turned by the motion of the horse. Behind the horse/s is a panorama (A7 in Chapmanπs Figure 1 and 3) moving in the opposite direction of the horse. Aside from the difference between an onstage endless belt/path and a revolving disc, this design functions much as earlier treadmill and panorama machinery.

Burgessπ design for a rotating stage device is similar to Chapmanπs. His patent, U.S. Patent No. 471,126, was granted on 22 March 1892 and it is interesting to note that one of the witnesses to sign the document was David I. Towers, who would later create and patent some significant designs for stage apparatuses himself. The illustration from Burgessπ patent is below in Figure 11.

Figure 11: Diagram from U.S. Patent No. 471,126

The revolving stage as patented by Burgess again functioned in a manner similar to the treadmill design, except that instead of setting the horse on a treadmill, it located him (or another object to be moved) on an uncovered segment of the revolving disc located under the stage. This is shown at e and d in Burgessπ illustration and by a horse tethered at a22 in Chapmanπs. Multiple horses, people or objects could be accommodated in Burgessπ design simply by having more than one revolving disc. This was slightly different than Chapmanπs design, as Chapman does not use multiple discs, but instead says that multiple horses can be accommodated on the ≥turn table≤ he utilizes in his design.[35]

Whereas Chapmanπs device, which utilized individual wire harnesses to control the forward motion of the horse/s moving on the single turntable was limited to a single speed, different speeds could be presented using Burgessπ design by revolving the discs at different speeds. The discs could also be slowed down or speeded up during a race scene to further enhance the verisimilitude of the scene. As in Chapmanπs design the ≥runners≤ (Burgess actually used two human figures in his patent illustration at -- d and e -- and refers to them as ≥runners≤ in the written description, while also allowing that horses, bicycles or other objects can be substituted) are attached to a windlass that can be used to control their rate of speed.

Burgess intended this new design as an easier means of presenting the ≥race≤ illusion onstage. In the patent description, he states, ≥The object of my invention is to provide a device by which these effects may be produced by a somewhat simpler mechanism than has heretofore been employed by others or me.≤[36] In the summation of his patent description, Burgess clarified (to some extent) the difference between this and other earlier designs, as well as the significance of this new design.

The main distinction between it and the prior devices or apparatus is that the endless path is arranged wholly in a horizontal frame [...] at the same time the within-described construction possesses certain advantages that render it applicable to cases where the other form of the device might prove too cumbersome or expensive.[37]

Despite these intentions, the rotating stage design never quite caught on as the treadmill and panorama combination had and it was that latter design that would be utilized in later (and greater) racing plays. These plays required another creative leap.

Having mastered the basics of perceived forward motion on stage in the staged horserace either by utilizing a revolving stage or by combining treadmills, panoramas, and fencing combined with other suitable objects for the horses to run ≥past≤, the producers of hippodrama next sought to increase the spectacular impact of the staged horserace in a different way. For this, they needed new machinery. The Country Fair and other racing plays had pushed the boundaries of the mounted horse race by increasing the numbers of horses involved, but Burgess was not satisfied. His next hippodramatic spectacle was The Year One, a comedy written by Charles Barnard.[38] Burgess raised the stakes with this play by ≥racing≤ horses in pairs, and even more audaciously, in front of chariots and charioteers.

The Year One premiered on 2 November 1895. This opening had been postponed several times ≥due to mechanical difficulties with the new racing machines.≤[39] When the play did open, the race scene was still hampered by ≥difficulties≤ not unlike those that had, at least occasionally, hindered the race scene in The Country Fair. The scene was intended to include two chariots, each of which was pulled by four horses, each of which were to be running on their own treadmill. An account in the New York Dramatic Mirror described the components of the intended illusion, and the largely ridiculous effect that was actually created by the flubbed race scene in an early production:

On the left of the stage was a chariot drawn by four coal black horses, which were dashing along toward the audience at breakneck speed. On the right was another chariot, drawn by four white steeds, one of which was dashing madly on to victory, while his three companions looked at him in mute surprise. It was a piece of magic worthy of the great Hermann. That one horse should run, while his three assistants, attached to the same vehicle, stood stock still, was so remarkable that the audience simply sat and gasped. Then they had a laugh, but the laugh was at the expense of Mr. Burgess.[40]

Although this problem was remedied in later performances, The Year One remained a failure both critically and commercially. This play is, however, significant for its inclusion of the staged chariot race that included eight horses running full blast on onstage treadmills. It is probable that the onstage machinery facilita